Jungs View of Religion Essay

I will be explaining Jung understands and his views of religion. Jung first starts with the key concept of the mind which is the three concepts of consciousness – consciousness, personal unconsciousness and the collective consciousness. Consciousness is where we actively make decisions and choices. The thoughts are based on a sensory experience e. g. the things we see, smell, hear, touch and taste. These are directly accessible. The personal conscious is out thoughts, feelings, urges which are difficult to bring to the consciousness and they are not directly accessible. They have been environmentally determined. The collective unconsciousness is inherited and the thoughts are shared by everyone – archetypes (inherited ideas: first prints or partners that form the basic blue print for major dynamic counterparts of the human personality. ) Jung believes that the archetypes pre exist in the collective unconscious of humanity. They determine how we both perceive and behave. Archetypes are the source of the ideas or images that is inherited instead of the ideas themselves. The experiences you have construct/create uniform images. We inherit a functional disposition to produce the same or very similar ideas not inherit the idea. This is the reason for a dream dictionary, for example a person could be dreaming that their friend is falling. So the falling is the image drawn from the archetype and the friend is from their experience. So the collective unconscious means that many of our ideas will be shared with people. There are different types of shared archetype examples are: the person – this is the mask that covers out true natures for the benefit of society. The mask could be good impressions of what is expected of us by others or the false impression to manipulate others behaviour and opinions. In our dreams the may manifest itself in images of ourselves appearing at a party in disguise. The shadow – this is our darker sides of us. In dreams it might reveal itself in the form of personification of evil e. g. Satan or monster. It could be deeper of our personality identity beings to be lost and individuals experience the chaos of getting closer to the material structure of psychic life. This commonly is found in the woods. The animus – is the masculine side of a female. They may appear as an exotic, sensual, young man or as heroes. The anima – is the female side of a male. They may appear as a  dancing girl, seductresses or goddess. Jung believes that the way neuroses(mental illness is caused by being psychically imbalanced) occurs is that it arises from being psychically imbalanced (so we become mentally ill if the when the psychic energy – psychological energy by which the work of the personality is performed isn’t flowing as well as it could. To maintain mental health all of the features of the personality need to be balanced so the psychic flows properly. There needs to be a balance between conscious and unconscious and the different archetype. If you fail to do this according to Jung this causes a mental disorder. Jung says through individuation (figuring out who you are and becoming your own self) you become psychically balanced personality through the addition of the range of archetypes into the conscious personality. There are two main process of individuation; the first part is when they come to terms with the outer environment with its challenges through work, friendship and relationship. The second part is from a middle age onwards is to come to terms with one’s own personality. For example a mid-life crisis, this is when someone is in the middle of their life they want what they never had in their youth age e.g. a sports car. They want to become psychically balanced as they missed out when they was youths. The things that come from the archetype such as images or thoughts are considered to be religious. Jung redefines religious thought as the numinous. This relies on Rudolf Otto’s understanding of the religious or numinous experience. According to Otto’s a numinous experience affects our consciousness which is caused by something external to our consciousness. Any experience which is archetypal in origin can be stated as religious. All archetypal images are ineffable (indescribable) . Our images of god are themselves archetypal. The concept of god is one of these primordial images (an archetype). Everyone is born with the tendency to generate religious images of god and angels . the actual image that we have of god are through our experiences in the world. An example of a case study is where Miss Miller had a dream about a moth’s desire for light. Jung said this parallel between god and light can be found in countless religious traditions e. g. the Aztec preoccupation with the sun and the Christian view of Jesus as ‘light of the world’. The role of religion is the process of individuation. The two reasons he gave was the self archetype this guides and controlled the innate process of individuation. Individuation is a religious process. The second reason is the self archetype generates images of wholeness. For example the mandala – means circle and is perfectly balanced, the design is symmetrical which represents the balance and wholeness same with Islamic art instead the repetitive patterns to show his eternality. Jung argues that god images are beneficial to our health. The images are used by the mind to individuate the personality, the personality then achieve its goal of integration. Religion now becomes clear, the ones that reject religion are therefore less likely to individuate successfully and is most likely to experience neurosis as a result. Jung concludes that the existence of an actual god is similar to Freud’s – there is no proof either way. We don’t know where the archetype actually comes from and we don’t know the origin of the-psyche because there are ineffable. As a psychic reality – god is real to those who experience the effect of archetypes. Jung always considered religious beliefs to be a natural expression of the collective unconscious.

WEC PROJECT

The crises management is the processes to handle the threats which are harmful or can be harmful for the organization since it would have a greater impact on the reputation of the organization and cause financial loss. Crises management is the response of the organization to deal the crises before their occurrence, during their occurrence and after the crises has been occurred. The crisis management involves all the stakeholders and policy makers to make the policies to avoid the crisis.When addressing a crisis it is important to structure the written communication such that it clearly tells why we are making the crises management report. Define all the aspects of the crises management. Tell the customer about the importance of the crisis management, that how crucial they are to be managed for growth and making a good reputation perspective. Be prepared to handle the post crisis Describe all the precautions and the crisis avoidance, settlements and repairing which have been done.Tell the customer about the procedures about crisis either these procedures fulfilling the needs of the organization or it is just enough and not satisfying the organization's needs regarding crisis. Tell the reader that how the procedures and precautions taken can be more secure and productive for the organization, how the improvements can be made to the procedures applied. How information has been gathered and includes the reports of performances along it. Explain the crises occurred during the business period.Provide the effects of the crisis to the business and how organizations overcome to these crises. Inform clients about the future threats which may hurt the organization. 5 CRISIS MANAGEMENT- IMPORTANCE OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION There are various forms of written communication that are used internally for cuisines operations include memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, e-mail, and Instant Messages. Examples of written communications generally used with c lients or other businesses include e- mail, Internet websites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards.An effective written communication follows 7 Co's principle which are- Clear, Concise, Concrete, Correct, Coherent, Complete, and Courteous A crisis is something which poses genuine threat to the reputation or even survival of the organization. This could be anything from a member of staff or trustee who has behaved inappropriately, to the closure of some of your organization's services. It might be that one of your service users is unhappy with how your organization has behaved -? and told their story to the local press.Very often, it is when a bad news story about an organization becomes public that it constitutes a real crisis. In crisis management, the threat is the probable damage a crisis can impact on an organization and a firm. A crisis can create three inter related threats like it may harm the safety of public, can cause financial loss and more importantly it woul d damage the reputation of he organization. Crisis management is a process designed to prevent or lessen the damage a crisis can inflict on an organization and its stakeholders. Crisis management can be viewed in three phases: 1.Pre-crisis: It is concerned with the prevention and preparation. 2. Crisis response : This is the phase when management mutually respond to a crisis 3. Post-crisis: In this phase management looks for ways to better handle the crisis and prepare for the next crisis. Importance Of written communication is that with properly structured written message, there is less scope for misinterpretation than with any other kind of immunization. A single corporate statement on an issue that deals with public relations can be circulated among company employees, the press and the general public.It allows the company to be represented by a single statement and creates a sense of continuity. It is effective public relations practice to make sure a company sends a single and c onsistent message. 6 CRISIS MANAGEMENT (Techniques & Examples) Crisis management is a systemic approach that engages the whole organization in efforts to avert crises that may affect the firm and to effectively manage those that do occur. The objective of organizational crisis management is to make timely decisions based on best facts and clear thinking when operating under extraordinary conditions.As fast a crisis is detected it is much easy to manage it. When the first signals of a potential crisis are detected, summoning even insignificant assets will empower the organization to manage the situation swiftly. CRISIS MANAGEMENT-Key concern points 1. Telling the truth in a balanced way. We live in this present reality where reality can be uncovered rapidly. Being discovered lying about your firm's wrong activities can demolish our firm. The exult for revealing firm's wrongdoing is colossal. 2. Tell it quickly with all possible mediums By and large, associations have less than a day to tell their truth version.After that, the media and other outside stakeholders will have taken advantage of auxiliary and tertiary experts who will have their perspectives on what has happened. Utilize all the accessible correspondence channels including the Internet, Intranet, social networking letters and mass notice frameworks articles, discourse prints. 3. Answer the SSW of the crisis accurately Firms should have looked more than ten times before making any PR moments about what happened? Where did it happen? When did it happen? Who was involved? Why did it happen? 4. Crisis management should be an ongoing process.Crisis management should be an ongoing process that requires careful and constant modification by senior executives. 5. Remember your employees as they are internal stakeholders. Organizations do not wait for its employees to know about crisis in the firm from external sources. They are the stakeholders and firm should make arrangements to inform them about crisis in the firm. 6. Designate one spokesperson and extend support to him with experts. 7 The most straightforward approach to convey a reliable message amid a crisis is to have one senior official as representative.All senior administrators ought to experience crisis correspondence preparing. At the point when a crisis hits, the representative ought to be encompassed by specialists who can elaborate on answers to technical questions. 7. Extend support to carriers of bad news. Welcome and help those reporting potential issues. At the point when a crisis is approaching, your most significant asset is the person who advises you about the debilitating circumstance rapidly. 8. Have positive relationships room starting.You can enhance the likelihood for this, in any case, on the off chance that you take the time to manufacture positive associations with workers and outer stakeholders well ahead of time of any emergency circumstance. Doing so permits you to have a clearer feeling of which people you may depend on. 9. During and after crises, have patience with other and with firm itself Attempting to think plainly under exceptional conditions takes a toll on the cerebrum, the heart and the body. It is essential to go to every one of the three amid and after a crisis. Communication: Role in Crisis ManagementOf the above key concerns it's quite noticeable that communication covers the major chunk. Be its informing the internal employees or the external stakeholders use of communication plays significant role. The communication can occur in various means with major classification as: 1) Written communication-Letter, email, copy on company intranet(internal) or website(external) 2) Verbal communication-Face to face, team meeting, media conferences, telephone call and TV/radio interviews Crisis handling through written communication – pros and cons It takes less time to skim through written articles.It can be sharp and to the point. It can be documented and reproduced ti me and again. However they are open to misinterpretation because Of limited information and specific writing styles. KEY EXAMPLES (Written Communication) a) TOYOTA- product Recall Three separate but related recalls of automobiles by Toyota Motor Corporation occurred at the end of 2009 and start of 2010. The issue was mechanical sticking of the accelerator pedal causing unintended acceleration, referred to as Sticking Accelerator Pedal by Toyota. Toyota also issued a separate recall for hybrid anti-lock brake software in February 2010.In this section few points in the recall letter will be discussed that failed to deliver their true intention because of the ill composition. Key elements Of First Letter: (For exact text of the letter please refer to Appendix- Part- a) We noticed that Toyota stayed away from apologizing for an accelerator that seems to have a mind of its own. Instead, they're sorry that they caused problem by implementing the recall. Toyota is the largest car maker in the world. Customers don't care about the closing down the production.We don't think firm is going to discover clients feeling regretful that firm needed to incidentally end the sequential assembly line. Key elements of First Letter: (For exact text of the letter please refer to Appendix- Part- a) We feel that saying straight forward the line † Here are the realities for our clients† is much stronger than the normal default â€Å"Here are the certainties. † I doesn't seem as though It has a plan of conciliatory sentiment. In this letter their primary focus has shifted to the â€Å"99 percent† with cars still humming along. They are not concerned about those 1 % who were bothered by the sticking paddle problem. ) FLIPPANT- Big Billion Day Situation – On 6th October, 2014, Pastry introduced its â€Å"One Billion Sale†. Flippant had offered massive discounts On products across varied (70+) categories. Flippant had put in months of effort to ensur e enhanced capacity of products available to customers on time. Problem -Flippant failed to estimate the demand for its products for the eventful day, as the items went out of stock within a few minutes after the sale began at 8 am. To avoid the criticism of late delivery, the company decided to keep the orders pending.It further cancelled most orders and assured customers that it would refund the money within 1 0 days. Customers also claimed that the prices were marked up before the discounts, and were available on competing sites at a lower price. Within 10 hours, though Flippant managed to get more than a billion clicks, it attracted criticism from angry customers on social networking sites accusing Flippant for cheating customers on prices and product availability, keeping money of the people without paying interest for 1 0 days, canceling the order without customer request etc.Flatcar's response – As the tide swayed against it, Flippant sent a mail to its entire customer base the next day, apologizing for the flaws that occurred on he eventful day. Having discussed exactly what went wrong that day, Flatcar's sincere apology the very next day sought to mitigate the idea that it was cheating its customers by giving false promises on price discounts. They discussed the four major problems that occurred the previous day: prices, out of stock products, cancellations and website issues. They highlighted that they would improve their systems to ensure customer trust is not broken again.It assured customers that they are valued by the company and they were sorry to have broken customer faith in them. Thus, Flippant apologized for the inconvenience caused to customers and discussed its future course of action to prevent this from repeating. Key elements of letter: (For the exact contents of the letter refer to Appendix: Part-b) The letter followed the principle off's and SW. The letter intended to restore the credibility of the organization amongst its cust omers. It had an apologetic tone, gave the customers accurate and succinct information about whatever had gone wrong and explained the reasons for the same.The company accepted full responsibility for the entire fiasco and did not attempt to shift he blame by any means. It was also emphasized in very polite yet effective tone that they hold the interests if the customers is paramount for them and reassured that such an incident will not repeat in the future a) SOUTHWEST AIRLINES (For the tweets refer Appendix: Part- c) The Southwest's Flight had a faulty and dangerous landing and it is perfectly demonstrated by southwest airlines as in how to handle the crisis situation through quick, clear and transparent communication on social media.It eventually helped the organization to win the trust of the customers and overcome the crisis successfully. As seen that the fans supported the response from southwest and had appreciation for Southwest's open communication and quick response. The i ncident showed that the organization had a proper backup plan and the staff was trained properly to handle such situations thereby successfully improving the goodwill of organization. They utilized the presence on social media with clear roles and response, scripts for those who need to respond immediately to a crisis. ) RED CROSS (For the exact tweets refer to Appendix: part- d) Social media was once again the cause of a PR crisis when a personal tweet as sent on the company official Twitter account in 201 1 . This started turning into a disaster for the organization working for humanitarian cause and when the situation went out of control the Red Cross responded brilliantly with transparency, humor and good grace. Now, deleting a tweet isn't always the best idea since a) if you have a big audience who notices these things, it can look shady when you delete things , secondly anything â€Å"deleted† can surface to haunt the organization later.But, Red Cross did the right thin g by acknowledging that the tweet went out, they elated it, and explaining with humor that it was all a mistake. It never turned into a major crisis. We found that Red Cross went beyond that response and turned a potentially harmful tweet into an opportunity for engagement. They took to their corporate blob to explain the situation, show their humanity, and engage with fans and followers. The employee who made the mistake accepted the same with humility and humor. This shows that organizations should be careful when using social media as channel of communication.But it was seen that when a crisis arises it is always best to be honest with your mans and followers. Social media folks are very forgiving, as long as an organization does not use dishonest ways to hide their mistake. C) J PENNY Sometimes what happens in the social media can be as dangerous as the company itself causing a blunder. Thus is the case with the J Penny Teapot that looked like Hitler. Reedit is a social bookmaki ng site, and one of its users posted a picture comparing J Penny's new teapot with Doll Hitler. The Telegraph was quick to pick up this trending topic, and posted in on Twitter.At first it seemed that a trivial matter like this would not pose any robbers. J Penny decided to take remedial measures to prevent this seemingly harmless tweet from snowballing into a full blown controversy. Key elements of the tweet: (For the tweet refer to Appendix: Part- e) The reply was quite unique and was humorous and the reason was that they thought that a serious tone would project them as being defensive. By doing this the event was turned into an excellent marketing exercise with the teapot being sold out within days. This is a classic example where a crisis was turned into an opportunity to market its product.We found that the company was expensive to the influence of social media and thereby by acting quickly and with wit a big crisis was avoided. 11 CONCLUSION In times of crisis, written commun ication plays an important role in mitigating a crisis. A formal communication to stakeholders assures them that the company is sincerely addressing the problem. It provides the customers an accurate description of the crisis facing the company, and the organization's plan of action to mitigate it. Our key findings from this project were: 0 In a world of information technology, media pressures and controversies may put the company into severe downturn.

Dubliners by James Joyce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dubliners by James Joyce - Essay Example The paralysis may also relate to the extent of the technology of the place especially in the twenty first century. In order to elaborate on this claim, the exercise will elaborate various characterizations from the various stories. All the stories in the Dubliners are connected by common themes such as corruption, paralysis and death. These render the characters stationary and incapable of moving forth and developing their status. Instead, the characters move forth in some instances and retreat afterwards causing an endless circle. The first story, The Sisters, majors on a boy and his mentor called Father Flynn. The priest has been mentoring the boy and the boy has advanced in his thinking and behaviour. His uncle tells him the weaknesses of his mentor and convinces him never to associate with him again (Tagleri 15). He informs the boy that the priest had suffered a third stroke and had made a confession on his condition. When the boy is eventually informed of Father Flynn’s death, he feels less sad. The boy observes the brown and yellow teeth of the deceased, implying a decay and static development and epitomizes their confinement. In this case, the society is well convinced of the priest’s demerits to the society through his paralysis and the eventual death. The boy feels freedom from the compulsions of the priest. The boy fails to progress due to his adherence to the notions from the society members. This is a story of two boys that also depict paralysis in the society and individual sexuality. The story illustrates two boys during their adventure and the chase of a wild cat. They encounter a man who starts by asking them of the books they have read. The boys begin to think of positivity of the man due to his thinking on books. The stranger then inquires about their girlfriends. The man goes ahead to masturbate before the boys. This is a greater extent of paralysis of morals (Papadopoulou 32). The boys are t

World war II powerpoint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

World war II powerpoint - Essay Example At the same time, the involvement in the war was been influenced by the conduct of the Japanese. Similar to Hitler, Japan also launched the quest to invade smaller countries in East Asia. In addition, it captured the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor which increased the call to the United States to enter the war. The United States was facing difficulties in creating a large army that would venture into Europe. The size of its army would only grantee the protection of the United States. For this reason, the army was reluctant to venture into war against Hitler and Japan. The declaration of war on the United States by Hitler depicted that was inevitable. However, with the collaboration of the French and British armies, the manpower was enough to war against the huge German army. After the declaration of war the United States had to launch attacks that would serve as a protection to the nation.Williams (2006) points out that the protection of the United States was only ensured if the army would attack Hitler before he could venture full army attacks on the United States. The defeat of Hitler became the first priority of the United States. The invasion of Japan on U.S naval bases also steered the nation towards entering the World War (Williams, 2006). President Roosevelt was allowed to have a joint partnership with French and the British and rage war on Hitler and Japan. The United States had an objective to secure the nations army bases taken over by Japan in Pearl Harbor. In addition, the British and French were allies to the United States. This prompted the nation to military and ammunition support. At the same time, the Americans understood the risks they would be faced with if the war escalated. They were fears of invasion through the Panama Canal and ae rial attacks. This also prompted the rush towards entering the war. In an argument by Williams (2006) the United also

See email Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

See email - Essay Example In this research we will use Christopoulous and Tsionas (2004) model, where the growth rate of GDP is dependent of financial development along side with other variable. Some of the countries in the Asian economy which will be considered are South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Pakistan and China. These countries will be focused in trying to study the contribution of financial market in the process of developing the economy. They all have similar economic development progress, culture and geographic proximity, thus making it possible to be used in determining the impact of financial market to the overall economic growth in a particular economy. The results will vary depending on the nature of the economic system, pattern of financial system and the type of model used to analyze the data. A strong correlation that exists between economic growth and financial market is a well recognized fact which has received more attention by most economists. This can be supported by the revolutionary works of Walter Bagehot (1873) and Joseph Schumpeter (1912). Over time, the direction in financial markets has really evolved growth and a strong association of development with rapid capital increase. Generally, when there are no funds in a particular country, then, there is no incentive for economic development. Immediately after accumulation of funds and an increase in per capita, financial markets become very active with the emergence of the financial intermediaries that tend to grow in number and size. This economic growth has a positive change in the overall production level of goods and services in that particular economy. Most of the conventional economists suggest that, factors of production such as capital, land and labor are the key determinants of technological change and a re the main source of change in the production function. It is obvious that a well functioning financial

Pros and Cons of Breast Cancer and Biomakers Research Paper

Pros and Cons of Breast Cancer and Biomakers - Research Paper Example Most of the tumor markers are produced by cancer cells and also normal cells, but are increased in cancerous conditions. These factors are found in tumor tissue, blood, urine and other tissues and fluids of the body in some patients with cancer. More often than not, tumor markers are proteins. (National Cancer Institute, 2012) More than 20 different tumor markers have been described and characterized and they are in clinical use (National Cancer Institute, 2012). While some are associated with only one type of cancer, others are associated with more than one type of cancer. However, there is no universal tumor marker that can detect any type of cancer. Tumor markers serve various purposes in cancer management like complementing diagnosis, prognostication, detection of recurrence, etc. However, there are certain limitations for the use of these markers. Thus, there are pros and cons to the use of tumor markers. In this essay, pros and cons of application of biomarkers or tumor markers in breast cancer management will be discussed. Application of breast cancer biomarkers The most common cancer affecting women all over the world is breast cancer and it has been estimated that about one million cases are diagnosed every year worldwide (Duffy et al, 2005). The main presenting features of the disease include lump in the breast, skin contour changes and nipple discharge. Asymptomatic cases may be picked up during routine screening tests. Definitive diagnosis is histopathology of the biopsy specimen. Several blood based biomarkers are available, but they do not have a role in the early diagnosis of the disease. For localized breast cancer, primary treatment is mastectomy or breast-conserving surgery and radiation. In invasive breast cancer, primary treatment is followed by hormone therapy or chemotherapy. These treatments have shown to reduce mortality related to breast cancer. Following primary therapy, the patients are followed up at regular intervals for surveillanc e. This includes clinical history, detailed physical examination, chest X-ray, mammography, biochemical testing and use of breast cancer markers. The intention is to detect recurrent disease at an early stage so that outcomes are better. This is one use of tumor marker. There are other uses of tumor markers in breast cancer management. Recurrent disease is common even in lymph node-negative cases and therapeutic options in such cases include exclusive hormone therapy or chemotherapy or a combination of both. Metastatic breast cancer is considered incurable and treatment is mainly palliative. Serial assessment of tumor markers is useful in to decide whether a particular treatment modality can be continues or there is a need to switch to another treatment modality. Thus, it is now clear that tumor markers are necessary for optimal management of breast cancer (Duffy et al, 2005). Pros of breast cancer biomarkers There are 2 types of tumor markers available for breast cancer and they ar e serum markers and tissue markers. Examples of serum markers useful in breast cancer include CEA, CA 15-3, polypeptide antigen or TPA, BR 27.29, tissue polypeptide specific antigen or TPS and the shed form of HER-2 (Duffy, 2006). Examples of tissue markers include urokinase plasminogen activator, HER-2, hormone receptors and plasminogen activator-1. Most of the oncological organizations in Europe, US and other countries recommend routine assay of progesterone and estrogen receptors on all newly diagnosed breast cancers to select the type of hormone therapy (Duffy, 2006). These markers are also useful to determine prognosis. HER-2 is also recommended on all newly diagnosed breast cancer cases. The main purpose of this is to determine whether the cancer is suitable for Trastuzumab (Herceptin). This test is

Optimizing the Water Injection System in the Offshore Drilling Wells Research Proposal

Optimizing the Water Injection System in the Offshore Drilling Wells - Research Proposal Example As noted by Krupnick et al surface as well as subsurface situations and conditions of the discovery made have significant effect on the extraction work, related expenses and determine the success or failure of the whole project. Technical success maybe achieved but the project may fail economically. First hand experience has shown that the most technical success is easy to achieve, but economic success is much difficulty. According to Spellman, and Whiting the process of analyzing the best way to optimize extraction of recoverable reserves starts by formulation of a development plan (266). This development plan takes into consideration all existing geologic as well as engineering data and information to come up with initial ways of optimizing water injection systems Research aims The following research will have two aims: 1. What are the contaminants in sea water? 2. What are the main methods used in optimizing water for injection in the offshore wells? Research design methodology (d ata collection methods and analysis of data) Research Design This research will be carried out using secondary research also qualitative research. The methods used to get information will be collection, analysis and evaluation of past studies rather than primary research, as noted by Mason secondary research can obtain its data from internal or external sources (26). The current online libraries provide a source where extensive research can be carried out on this topic and latest information obtained. Methodology The research will be conducted using secondary sources, whereby it will be based on past studies that were done on the same topic in order to answer the formulated research question. The topic under discussion requires extensive resources for a researcher to carry out a primary research, this is because it would involve visiting a number of offshore wells, carrying out interviews and formulating questionnaires. Though there are some limitations towards this methods, like th e researcher has to depend on views of other researchers, its main benefits is that it avails a big database of information to the research, and he can select relevant and substantial material to use in the research (Robson 78). For the sake of keeping the data to managerial size, it was thought that the research should concentrate basically on the methods used to optimize water injection in the offshore wells. Methods of Data Collection Since our study will be based on secondary research, data collection will entail getting information results from the previously done studies and analyzing the information. Though the results from the previous studies may be not 100% accurate meaning that this will affect our final outcome, still, this will be reliable data. It should be noted that methods of optimizing injection of water in offshore wells requires extensive resources and technology used do not change quickly. Data Collection procedures and Data Analysis To evaluate and review the d ata collected from the study seeking to answer the research question, the study will use known database application like Microsoft Excel to compile table and other data to compilation. This data will be used to statistically determine if the studies relevance of data collected fr

Mythology Research Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Mythology Research Paper - Essay Example It has in fact been used to stir so many other adventure tales then and now.What is interesting is that the original Greek mythology version involved no glorification of the victor. "For he who was all the world to me, as well thou knowest, hath turned out the worst of men, my own husband." It was the will of the goddess, Hera, herself that Medea fall in love and so it was arranged. Having been unsuspectingly struck by Cupid, she found herself slave to the wishes of the man she loved. She betrayed her father, dismembered her brother and made a criminal of herself in his name. Now, how would such a woman deliver her vengeance if the man to whom all her passions were devoted deserted her The central character was a woman who was about to be deserted by her husband, Jason, who was about to marry the daughter of the King of Corinth in order to further himself. But while Jason thought of nothing but ambition, Medea thought of nothing but her husband. That Medea loved her husband is clear, and Edith Hamilton speaks of that love in its earliest stages in rose-colored language: He spoke first and He spoke first and implored her to be kind to hum. He could not but have hope, he said, because her loveliness must surely mean that she excelled in gentle courtesy. She did not know how to speak to him; she wanted to pour out all she felt at once. Silently she drew the box of ointment from her bosom and gave it to him. She would have given her soul to hum if he had asked her. And now both were fixing their eyes on the ground abashed, and again were throwing glances at each other, smiling with love's desire. (125) Prior to being married and exiled in Corinth, Medea and Jason had been brought together by Hera and Aphrodite so Jason could take possession of the Golden Fleece. Jason was the son of a Grecian king who had been robbed of his rightful seat by his own cousin. He had wanted to regain control, which -his cousin, Pelias, had claimed- would be graciously given to him if he could produce the Golden Fleece. The Golden Fleece had then been in the possession of Medea's father, King Aetus but he too had been unwilling to give away the magical artifact. In order to ensure that the strangers never obtained it, King Aetus had devised a challenge impossible to overcome. Medea had

Transformation of Asean Community to Aec and the Effects to Thailand Essay Example for Free

Transformation of Asean Community to Aec and the Effects to Thailand Essay Recently, the world has experienced financial crisis, those countries that have been powerful and have strong economies such as the members of European Union (EU) such as the United Kingdom, France and Greece, are facing a big financial collapse. So now a new economic community is arising with intense competition because new markets are developing and financial opportunities are sought. Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) is one of significant players in the world’s economy for centuries. It has emerged strongly from the financial crisis offering the new opportunities for investors and businesspeople. The interest and attention of investment are moving to the ASEAN area more and more each year because of the available untapped market in the ASEAN and the potential of being the production base that eases and facilitates those new incoming traders and investors. Many investors have kept their eyes on the region’s performance and its transition into the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) which is the newest area of economic integration in the world. To study this economic bloc is significant in order to capture the great opportunities and prepare to be ready in taking the supreme advantages from the AEC. In the transforming processes, some practices will be applied to the members and that can make the difference between failure and success of the AEC project apparent. This could lead to a modification of the plan for AEC integration in the future, from the beginning of origin point to the change of community which takes place in four phases, its visions and four pillars. They should be taken into consideration to learn how it works to move forward because this economic community will possibly be the new engine of the world economy. This essay consists of an introduction, explanation and clarification on the ASEAN and the AEC. In order to critically examine the AEC; most of its dimensions will be discussed. There are three areas included in the paper which are, firstly; identify and describe both communities’ purposes of existing as well as the characteristics of the community, these explanations can be used to explain and clarify what the AEC represents in the past, present, and future. The detail of each four-pillar, the core targets of the AEC, will be carefully interpreted. Secondly; the benefits of the AEC will be briefly examined. And lastly, the challenges that the AEC may face in the progression of it transformation from ASEAN will be analysed. Some suggestion will be offered in the conclusion. What are ASEAN and AEC? Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand. The founding members are Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. After that Brunei Darussalam, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Myanmar, and Cambodia joined in 1984, 1995, 1997, and 1999, respectively. At the beginning, â€Å"it was for political purposes and was declared a preferential trade area in 1977.† (Frankel and Wei, 1997, p.312) that is the point where the ASEAN started moving towards the economic community and move further in 1992 when the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) was established. Source: International Monetary Fund, 1994, World Economic Outlook, October 1994: A Survey by the Staff (Washington) Its performances have been outstanding. Apparently from many measurements, for example, the increasing of ASEAN’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the indicator that used to calculate health of the areas’ economy, compares to other countries’ is remarkable. In figure 1, from 1960-70, its Real GDP was 5.6. It has gradually increased and in 1990-2000, the real GDP was 7.6 which comparable with Republic of Korea, slightly lower than China and even higher than Japan that was at 2.5 (Larsen F., Aziz J., 1997, p.309). The Real GDP Growth of the ASEAN-6 (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam) is forecasted to reach 6.0% on average from 2011-2015 while the EU’s real GDP growth before 2015 will not be more than 3% (The Conference Board, 2012). Additionally, the inflation has remained stable which reflects the notable performance of the ASEAN in setting fiscal and financial policies. Furthermore, the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows that was unattractive in the past, now it has distinguished among the world FDI inflows. As of 1995-2005, the FDI inflows of the ASEAN was about US$15,773 to US$38,083 million (ASEAN FDI Database, 2006, p.13) but after that it has been rocketed to US$47,075.6, US$ 38,266 and US$76,207 million in 2008-2010, respectively.(ASEAN Foreign Direct Investment Statistics Database, 2012, p.1) Part One: Purposes of Establishing AEC The main purpose of the establishment of ASEAN was cooperation in many areas such as economic, social, and etc. that promotes the regional peace and stability. (Economic Community Factbook , 2011, p.viii) Even though, there are many changes in the framework of improvement in the ASEAN, the shared vision â€Å"outward looking, living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring societies†(ibid., p.viii) is maintained and used as fundamental outline in the future for every ASEAN nations. In 2003, all ASEAN members decided to create the more committed and strong economic community which is called â€Å"AEC†; they targeted to reach the plan by 2020. But then in 2007, they have changed to accelerate the established to 2015. The understanding on core four-pillar of the AEC can acknowledge the main purposes of the AEC and build an awareness on how the opportunities will be occurred in the region. Regard to the four-pillar (ASEAN Secretariat, 2012, p.3-14), first is ‘Single Market and Production Base’, the ASEAN attempts to bring 10 nations to become one market and a key production base of the world by executing â€Å"Five Free Flows† which are; firstly, Free Flow of Goods by creating a tariff liberalisation and a trade facilitation within the region. Making the custom process more ready and standardised to build an ‘ASEAN Single Window’, this flow leads to economies of scale, and reduction in cost while increasing productivity, to the region. Secondly, Free Flow of Services which liberalises every service sector to leverage the flexibility within the ASEAN. Thirdly, Free Flow of Skilled Labour, support efficiency and effectiveness of qualified professionals’ mobility. Fourthly, Free Flow of Investment eliminates restricted regulations that not facilitate free flow and openness in an investment. Lastly, Free Flow of Capital that integrat es the ASEAN’s financial market and capital market to ensure the trade’s strength and flow. The willingness of each nation to consolidate market is the problem that brings the most difficulty in success this pillar. The second pillar, ‘Competitive Economic Region’, aims to create the appropriate competition environment within the ASEAN by setting policies in order to protect the customer right and businesses in the ASEAN. The most important component of this pillar is an infrastructure development which includes the transportation and logistics services. The crucial point is to enhance the efficient and secure transport network; not only physical infrastructure, e.g. road and rail, but also the soft infrastructure such as high-speed connection on internet and ICT application. To ease inter-border investment and financing on regional infrastructure are the most significant leverage to create a competitive economic in the region. The infrastructures are important in catching up the world’s advancement and speed up the equal competition within the region. The third pillar, ‘Equitable Economic Development’, purposes to support the Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Vietnam (CLMV) and SMEs in the region for creating the fair competition and promoting the advanced competitiveness environment. It also aims to strengthen the ASEAN’s competitive capacity in international level. The gap that exists within the region can slow down the process in success of this pillar. The last pillar, ‘Integration into the Global Economy’, even though it has existed over the decades that ASEAN has signed Free Trade Area agreement with major partners in the world market, the AEC will act as the one partner to the other markets, for instance, with China where the ASEAN benefits most because of its early economic recovery. Part Two: Benefits of AEC In 2012, the ASEAN is in the phase III of the ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint which consists of four phases, the master plan in creating the AEC, which some benefits and obstacles in turn into new economic community have appeared and those can be learned in order to adjust the new plan, maintain the effectiveness of it and hasten the efficiency. Regard to the four-pillar, the benefits of the AEC are; attract new FDI both from within and outside the region as a result of larger market, openness and free flow within the ASEAN that are caused by non-tariff barriers. These can promote the technologicals improvement and hasten the trade integration of the region which leads to the independence from external regions’ economy. In the past, the ASEAN has relied its economic growth and trade with the major partners such as United States and European Union. As the AEC becomes more integrated, the more productivity growth and more strength in international competition capacity it will be and it will also less vulnerability to external crisis. The economies of scale is another benefit that the AEC can received if the successful of the ‘Single Market and Production Base’ happens which bring about to the cost reduction in production because of the tariff liberalisation. As soon as the free flow of skilled labour occurred, the level of education will increase dramatically which improves the living standard and income standard. Not only well-beings will arise but also the decreasing of poverty in the region will truly happen. By adding the new infrastructure to region, the convenience in communication, travel and trade will support the competitiveness of the ASEAN. Part Three: Challenges of Becoming AEC When the massive progression takes place, the challenges and problems that present obstacles and slow down the processes of transformation will occur and cause difficulties in reaching the goal. From the earlier processes till 2012; the third phase, the problems that struggle the ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint have been reviewed and observed through the scorecard measurement that evaluates each phases of four-pillar. The percentage of completed tasks comparing to the benchmark is showing both successful and unsuccessful performance of the AEC. Source: Adapted from ASEAN Secretariat (2012).Chartering Progress toward Regional Economic Integration .ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard, 8-15. Retrieved August 21, 2012, http://www.aseansec.org/publications/ASEAN_AECFactBook.pdf According to the scorecard the most successful area in the four-dimension is the ‘Integration into the Global Economy’; phase I achieved 100% and phase II achieved 77.8% (on average of 85.7%), as suggested in the prior part that ASEAN have done many agreement with world partners so it is the task that every nations in ASEAN can do best as a result of well experienced. The most difficult part is ‘Single Market and Production Base’; phase I achieved 93.8% and phase II achieved 49.1% (on average of 65.9%) and closely followed by the ‘Equitable Economic Development’ that is on average of 66.7%. These are the areas where the ASEAN cannot do well because of the gap between members, obviously that ASEAN-6 and CLMV are very apart in standard of living and education which lead to lack of attention from those laggards in improving equality abilities toward the AEC, as well as the behindhand infrastructure development countries such as the Philippines, Lao PDR and Vietnam that have to catch up with others (Basu Das, 2012, p.4) the lack of financial support could be the main cause because to build up the strong infrastructure network, it requires massive financial investment not only for the construct platform but also the management tasks. Those other countries are also slow in implementing the plan, for example, in Thailand; the corruption has slowed the development progress. In Cambodia and Myanmar, political restrictions and barriers are controversial and unpredictable. Another challenge is the ASEAN nations see each other as competitors not partners, for instance, Thailand and Vietnam in Rice industry, they compete to lead in the sector, they not intend to become the single market in reality. Moreover, trade within the ASEAN is relatively low compared with other regions in the world (A. Frankel J. Wei S., 1997, p.312). This causes the weakness of the ASEAN in competing with other regional integration because its economy, including the export and import, depends on other countries and leads to financial weakness. Lastly, the language struggle is a major issue. People in the ASEAN are lacking in linguistic skills, except in Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines, they cannot speak English and Chinese which are the main business median languages so it seems to bring the inequality to the people in region and slow the success of ‘Free Flow of Labour’. Conclusion The AEC is the most crucial task that the ASEAN has to complete in order to have a sustainable growth in financial and economic affairs in the future. Though the establishment of the ASEAN was long, the gap between nations still exists. And even though outstanding performance is the most attractiveness from investors, the readiness in infrastructure is still questionable. Towards the AEC era requires hard working and cooperation within the ASEAN, the success of the AEC can come from the readiness of individuals in region. Thus, education is the fundamental factor to create understanding in the AEC’s purposes. It can empower people to obtain the most benefits from the AEC and not to be taken advantages by foreign investors. The foundation principles of the AEC are the four-pillars which will assist it in becoming a single market and key production base of the world. With an appropriate competitive environment and a developed uniformity the region can become a significant global economic engine. People should also be well-informed about the positive sides as well as the challenges in the transformation to the AEC so they can take full advantage of these opportunities. Nevertheless, the AEC is like other economic communities, it is essential to have a consistency in development, discipline and commitment of each nation in the community. As can be seen from the failure of the other communities such as the EU, the carelessness and indiscipline can cause on uncontrollable crisis that can affect people around the world and diminish confidence. Bibliography ASEAN FDI Database (2006).FDI Flow to ASEAN 1995-1st Quarter 2006.Statistics of Foreign Direct Investment in ASEAN, 13. Retrieved August 14, 2012, from http://www.aseansec.org/5187-1.pdf ASEAN Foreign Direct Investment Statistics Database (2012).Top ten sources of foreign direct investment inflow to ASEAN.ASEAN Statistics.1. Retrieved August 14, 2012, from http://www.aseansec.org/stat/Table27.pdf ASEAN Secretariat (2012).Chartering Progress toward Regional Economic Integration .ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard, Retrieved August 21, 2012, http://www.aseansec.org/publications/ASEAN_AECFactBook.pdf Basu Das, S. (Eds.) (2012). Achieving the Asian Economic Community 2015: Challenges for member countries and business. Singapore: ISEAS. Frankel, J., Wei, S. (1997).ASEAN in a Regional Perspective. In J.Hicklin D.Robinson A. Singh(Eds.), Macroeconomic Issues Facing ASEAN Countries (pp.311-365). Washington D.C.: External Relations Department, Publication Services. International Monetary Fund, 1994, World Economic Outlook, October 1994: A Survey by the Staff (Washington). Larsen, F., Aziz, J. (1997).ASEAN in the World Economy. In J.Hicklin D.Robinson A. Singh (Eds.), Macroeconomic Issues Facing ASEAN Countries (pp.299-310). Washington D.C.: External Relations Department, Publication Services. The Conference Board (2012).Comparison of Base Scenario with Optimistic and Pessimistic Scenarios, 2012 – 2025.Global Economic Outlook 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012, from http://www.conference-board.org/data/globaloutlook.cfm

Analysis and Design of Software Architecture Essay Example for Free

Analysis and Design of Software Architecture Essay Outline 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Development Process Requirements Quality Attributes Runtime QA Non-runtime QA Requirements Analysis: Example Architectural Analysis Design Architectural Views Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 2 / 78 Development Process Methodology Diï ¬â‚¬erent software development processes have software architecture as a part of the process Rational uniï ¬ ed process Spiral development method Agile development method Evolutionary rapid development Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 3 / 78 Development Process Place of SA in SDP Figure: Source: Software Architecture Primer by Reekie, McAdam Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 4 / 78 Development Process Methodology After the initial requirements analysis but before software design The ï ¬ rst architecture is also a communication basis with the customer Inputs for the development of the architecture: 1 2 Requirements Context (technical, organizational, business, ) Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 5 / 78 Requirements Analysis At the beginning there is always a customer who wants a speciï ¬ c software system Customer â€Å"wishes† are always informal Interviews, some documents, some Excel tables, We need to analyze such informal records and structure it Requirements engineering is a huge ï ¬ eld but we just illustrate here one possibility Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 6 / 78 Requirements Analysis The results of the requirements analysis: 1 2 Functional requirements Non-functional requirements (a) Runtime qualities (b) Non-runtime qualities 3 Contextual requirements Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 7 / 78 Requirements Functional requirements A technical expression of what a system will do Arise from stakeholder needs Structured language: software requirements speciï ¬ cation Use cases: structured description of user interactions with the system Formal models: e. g. state-charts Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 8 / 78 Requirements Non-functional requirements Other needs than directly functional or business-related Generally expressed in the form of quality-attributes Runtime quality attributes Non-runtime quality attributes Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 9 / 78 Requirements Contextual requirements What technology is available? Expertise of the development team Previous experience of users/customers Technical, business, market, legal, ethical, Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 10 / 78 Quality Attributes Need to address QAs Without any need for performance, scalability, any implementation of functionality is acceptable However, we always need to take into account the broader context E.g. hardware, technological, organizational, business, The functionality must be there but without proper addressing of QA it is worth nothing Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 11 / 78 Quality Attributes Inï ¬â€šuence on QAs Typically, a single component can not address a QA completely Any QA is inï ¬â€šuenced by multiple components and their interactions E.g. a UI component has a high degree of usability: however, usability of the system is compromised if a data management component has poor performance in accessing the data → users need to wait long → poor usability Components and their interactions → software architecture QAs are directly inï ¬â€šuenced by software architecture Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 12 / 78 Runtime QA PURS PURS (performance, usability, reliability, security) Performance: time performance, memory, disk, or network utilization Usability: human factors, easy to learn, easy to use, Reliability: availability, safety, Security: authentication, data protection, Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 13 / 78 Runtime QA Performance Time performance is most obvious Measured in the number of operations per second Also, latency: the time from receiving an input and producing an output Other measures: memory, disk, network utilization or throughput Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 14 / 78 Runtime QA Performance Diï ¬â‚¬erent measures are typically traded oï ¬â‚¬ against each other E.g. increasing throughput may increase latency Time performance might be increased with more memory True performance of the system is not only deï ¬ ned by performance of single components But also by their interactions and the overall processes in the system Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 15 / 78 Runtime QA Performance factors Choice of algorithms Database design Communication Resource management Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 16 / 78 Runtime QA Choice of algorithms Performance of algorithms is measured by their complexity (big O) E.g. linear complexity: O(n) Running time increases in direct proportion to the size of the data E.g. polynomial complexity: O(n2 ) It does not scale: double size of the data running time increased by factor of 4 Goal: O(nlog (n)) Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 17 / 78 Runtime QA Database design Performance of database queries can dominate the overall performance The design of the tables has enormous impact on the overall performance Techniques to improve it: lazy evaluation, replication, caching Some additional cost to manage replication and/or caching In-memory databases (real-time systems) Developing a new database (search engines) Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 18 / 78 Runtime QA Communication Network overhead Package data according to a protocol, sending data over network Each layer means additional overhead Think how to use network: packaging binary data as XML!? Use more compact formats, e.g. JSON vs XML Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 19 / 78 Runtime QA Resources management Overloaded components need to be avoided A chain is only as strong as its weakest link! E.g. a single-threaded shared resource is in use: all other threads are blocked Very diï ¬Æ'cult to track down Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 20 / 78 Runtime QA Usability Usability is a very rich ï ¬ eld If usability is important you will need a usability expert Combination of many factors: responsiveness, graphical design, user expectations, conï ¬ dence Measuring with time taken to complete task, error rate, time to response, Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 21 / 78 Runtime QA Responsiveness and data availability An example of relations between QAs Usability requires that the system responds to user actions within a certain period of time If it is a complex system this need translates into performance along the path of the user action Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 22 / 78 Runtime QA Responsiveness and data availability Figure: Usability vs. Performance Source: Software Architecture Primer by Reekie, McAdam Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 23 / 78 Runtime QA Discussion on relations between QAs This diagram shows that we need to pay attention to tuning communication between B and Y Performance of the communication channel is a consequence of a usability requirement Do we need to support security of the communication channel? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 24 / 78 Runtime QA Discussion on relations between QAs This diagram shows that we need to pay attention to tuning communication between B and Y Performance of the communication channel is a consequence of a usability requirement Do we need to support security of the communication channel? We support QAs always only as a response to user needs Never because it is needed anyway! Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 24 / 78 Runtime QA Discussion on relations between QAs If we support security even if it is not needed Very often QAs exercise opposing forces on the system Security requires a lot of checking: performance will suï ¬â‚¬er → usability will suï ¬â‚¬er A minimalistic approach: develop only what is required! Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 25 / 78 Runtime QA Reliability In traditional engineering disciplines reliability measures the failure rate of the system Failure rate speciï ¬ ed by mean time to failure MTTF A related measure: mean time between failures MTBF MTTR is mean time to repair A is availability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 26 / 78 Runtime QA Reliability MTBF = MTTF + MTTR A= A= MTTF MTBF MTTF MTTF +MTTR E.g. expected availability of Web systems: Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 27 / 78 Runtime QA Reliability MTBF = MTTF + MTTR A= A= MTTF MTBF MTTF MTTF +MTTR E.g. expected availability of Web systems: 1 (always up-and-running) =⇒ MTTF → ∞ Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 27 / 78 Runtime QA Reliability Increasing reliability involves testing However, impossible to prove that a system is correct, i.e. without bugs Acceptability of errors depends on the  nature of a system Personal desktop use: bugs are typically tolerated Enterprise level: medium reliability level High-reliable systems: bugs can be fatal Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 28 / 78 Runtime QA Security Increasingly important aspect of systems is security Because systems are exposed to threats Especially networked systems As with other QAs security is a set of related responses to user needs Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 29 / 78 Runtime QA Authentication Requirement for identiï ¬ cation of users with a system Users present credentials so that the system can identify them Typically username and password Other forms: certiï ¬ cates, smart cards, biometric features Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 30 / 78 Runtime QA Authorization After authentication authorization which functions and what data is available for users This information is captured in an authorization model Access control lists (ACL) deï ¬ ne who can access and how a resource might be accessed E.g. read access, write access, delete access, Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 31 / 78 Runtime QA Authorization Drawbacks of ACLs It is resource based, e.g. a page in a CMS Often, authorization needs to address functions or tasks Also, managing of ACLs is diï ¬Æ'cult, e.g. subresources of resources Also, performance problems with checking Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 32 / 78 Runtime QA Authorization Another model: role-based access control (RBAC) Roles are used to manage many-to-many relations between users and permissions Roles are used to represent the job functions, e.g. author, teacher, student in an E-learning system Permissions are modeled as parts of roles, e.g. create page, create tests, Users are than assigned to a role and acquire automatically permissions of that role Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 33 / 78 Non-runtime QA MeTRiCS MeTRiCS (maintainability, evolvability, testability, reusability, integrability, conï ¬ gurability, scalability) Maintainability: how easy can you ï ¬ x bugs and add new features Evolvability: how easy your system copes with changes Testability: how easy can you test the system for correctness Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 34 / 78 Non-runtime QA MeTRiCS Reusability: how easy is to use software elements in other contexts, e.g. a software library Integrability: how easy you can make the separately developed components of the system work correctly together Conï ¬ gurability: how easy can a system be conï ¬ gured for diï ¬â‚¬erent installations and target groups Scalability: how easy the system copes with a higher performance demand Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 35 / 78 Non-runtime QA Maintainability This QA considers the whole lifecycle of a system What happens during system operation? Property that allows a system to be modiï ¬ ed after deployment wirh ease E.g. extensible, modiï ¬ ed behavior, ï ¬ xing errors Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 36 / 78 Non-runtime QA Maintainability At the design and implementation level Code comments Object-oriented principles and design rules Consistent programming styles Documentation Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 37 / 78 Non-runtime QA Maintainability Maintainability is very important because any software system will change over time Experience shows that such changes tend to degrade the system over time Software systems are subject to entropy The cumulative eï ¬â‚¬ect of changes degrades the quality of the system Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 38 / 78 Non-runtime QA Maintainability The systems tend to become messy systems Regardless of how a nice plan you had at beginning Design for change recollect OO design rules Abstract messy parts of the system so that they can be exchanged Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 39 / 78 Non-runtime QA Maintainability Don’t be afraid to refactor and rewrite and redesign Each software vendor does this with major versions Create throw-away prototypes Think out-of-box and innovate Don’t always follow a hype very often nothing new in hypes E.g. Web services Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 40 / 78 Non-runtime QA Testability Means to improve testability Test cases: if something fails there is a bug Separation of the testing framework and the system, i.e. testing with scripts from outside Logging Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 41 / 78 Non-runtime QA Conï ¬ gurability Ability of a system to vary its operational parameters without re-compiling or re-installing E.g. selecting appropriate database drivers, conï ¬ guring network parameters, Typically, realized by a set of conï ¬ guration ï ¬ les E.g. Apache Web server conï ¬ guration ï ¬ le sets host name, virtual hosts, Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 42 / 78 Non-runtime QA Conï ¬ gurability Conï ¬ gurability interacts with other QAs such as testability, maintainability, reliability High degree of conï ¬ gurability tends to have a negative impact on those QAs Testing of diï ¬â‚¬erent system conï ¬ guration becomes more diï ¬Æ'cult → reliability compromised Conï ¬ gurable components will be strongly parametrized → decreased maintainability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 43 / 78 Non-runtime QA Scalability Ability of a system to increase its capacity without re-compiling or re-installing E.g. serving additional Web pages means only copying these Web pages into a Web server ï ¬ le system Sometimes increasing capacity means increasing hardware, e.g. Web server clusters Managing user session on the client side, means only providing additional code-on-demand from the server Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 44 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example System description Web-based Network Analysis Tool: W-NAT A simple and usable system for network analysis is needed. Networks are entities that contain not only individuals but also their connections with other individuals (see e.g. 3 for an example). The system accepts a network representations as a list of pairs of connected nodes stored in a dataset ï ¬ le. Nodes are represented as integers. An edge between two nodes is stored as a line containing two nodes delimited by a tabulator. Users might upload datasets to the systems and store them for further analysis. Each user might upload multiple datasets and can execute various analysis on those datasets. The system keeps the track of the analysis history for each user. Users may calculate degree distributions, network diameter, clustering coeï ¬Æ'cient, connectivity measures, singular values, and diï ¬â‚¬erent centrality measures. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 45 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example System description Web-based Network Analysis Tool: W-NAT Users can execute various calculations on multiple datasets in parallel. The system must not be blocked if a calculation is currently under way. Rather it should be possible to start a new calculation, or view previous calculations, etc. In case of longer calculations the system needs to notify the user by e-mail when the calculation is over. The results of the calculations should be available in textual and in graphical form. All results can be also downloaded to a local computer. The system will be used by a group of students that learn the basics of network analysis. It is expect that at any times the system will be used by multiple users executing multiple calculations. Since the system is primarily an educational tool it needs to be didactically sound, i.e. simplicity and usability are very important. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 46 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example System description 6 How to search in a small world Pajek Figure 2: HP Labs’ email communication (light grey lines) mapped onto the organizational hierarchy of HP Labs constructed out the e-mail communication. Figure: Social network(black lines). Note that communication tends to â€Å"cling† to of formal organizational chart. From: How to search a social network, Adamic, 2005. with one another. The h-distance, used to navigate the network, is computed as follows: individuals have h-distance one to their manager and to everyone they share a manager with. Distances are then recursively assigned, so that each individual has h-distance 2 to their ï ¬ rst neighbor’s neighbors, and h-distance 3 to their second Denis Helic (KMI, TU neighbor’s neighbors, etc. SA Analysis and Design Graz) Oct 19, 2011 47 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example System description Web-based Network Analysis Tool: W-NAT The system is a Web-based system and the users should be able to operate the system by using a standard Web browser. The users need not install any additional plugins to operate the system. User perceived performance of the system should be acceptable. In addition, standard Web usability concepts need to be followed. In particular, browser back button must be working at all times and it should be possible to bookmark pages at all times. Finally, standard Web design principles should be satisï ¬ ed, meaning that pages are valid (X)HTML pages in at least HTML Transitional. The system needs to support cross browser compatibility. Further, each page and each important application state needs to have a unique and human-readable URL. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 48 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR1: The system is a network analysis tool. The system can calculate the following measures. UR1.1: UR1.2: UR1.3: UR1.4: UR1.5: Out-degree distribution In-degree distribution Cumulative out-degree distribution Cumulative in-degree distribution Hop plot Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 49 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR1: The system is a network analysis tool. The system can calculate the following measures. UR1.6: Clustering coeï ¬Æ'cient UR1.7: Distribution of weakly connected components UR1.8: Distribution of strongly connected components UR1.9: Left singular vector UR1.10: Right singular vector Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 50 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR1: The system is a network analysis tool. The system can calculate the following measures. UR1.12: UR1.12: UR1.13: UR1.14: UR1.15: Network singular values Degree centrality Closeness centrality Betweenness centrality Eigenvector centrality Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 51 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR2: Networks are stored in dataset ï ¬ les. UR3: The dataset ï ¬ le has the following format. NodeID1 \t NodeID2\n UR4: Users can upload multiple datasets to the system. UR5: To perform an analysis users select a dataset and then choose a measure to calculate. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 52 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR6: For each user and for each dataset the system manages a history of calculations. UR7: Users may initiate multiple calculations simultaneously. UR8: When a calculation is started the system is not blocked. UR9: The system notiï ¬ es users about a ï ¬ nished calculation by e-mail. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 53 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR6: For each user and for each dataset the system manages a history of calculations. UR7: Users may initiate multiple calculations simultaneously. UR8: When a calculation is started the system is not blocked. UR9: The system notiï ¬ es users about a ï ¬ nished calculation by e-mail. When is this notiï ¬ cation needed? If the user is logged out? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 53 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR10: The calculation results are presented in a textual as well as in a graphic form. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 54 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR10: The calculation results are presented in a textual as well as in a graphic form. Which form? Format? Graphics format? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 54 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR10: The calculation results are presented in a textual as well as in a graphic form. Which form? Format? Graphics format? UR11: Users can download the calculation results. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 54 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR10: The calculation results are presented in a textual as well as in a graphic form. Which form? Format? Graphics format? UR11: Users can download the calculation results. Single results? All results? Archived, how archived? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 54 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR10: The calculation results are presented in a textual as well as in a graphic form. Which form? Format? Graphics format? UR11: Users can download the calculation results. Single results? All results? Archived, how archived? UR12: Users can register with the system. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 54 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR10: The calculation results are presented in a textual as well as in a graphic form. Which form? Format? Graphics format? UR11: Users can download the calculation results. Single results? All results? Archived, how archived? UR12: Users can register with the system. How register? E-mail? Captcha? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 54 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Functional requirements UR10: The calculation results are presented in a textual as well as in a graphic form. Which form? Format? Graphics format? UR11: Users can download the calculation results. Single results? All results? Archived, how archived? UR12: Users can register with the system. How register? E-mail? Captcha? UR13: Users can login and log out. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 54 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? UR3: Authentication should be supported. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? UR3: Authentication should be supported. Security Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? UR3: Authentication should be supported. Security UR4: User-perceived performance must be acceptable Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? UR3: Authentication should be supported. Security UR4: User-perceived performance must be acceptable Performance and Usability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? UR3: Authentication should be supported. Security UR4: User-perceived performance must be acceptable Performance and Usability How many seconds at max users can wait? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? UR3: Authentication should be supported. Security UR4: User-perceived performance must be acceptable Performance and Usability How many seconds at max users can wait? UR5: Web-based system should be available at all times. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR1: The system is simple, usable and didactically sound. Usability UR2: The system needs to support multiple users simultaneously. Performance How many users? UR3: Authentication should be supported. Security UR4: User-perceived performance must be acceptable Performance and Usability How many seconds at max users can wait? UR5: Web-based system should be available at all times. Reliability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 55 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability UR7: Extending the system with new metrics. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability UR7: Extending the system with new metrics. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability, conï ¬ gurability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability UR7: Extending the system with new metrics. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability, conï ¬ gurability UR8: Reliability of a Web-based system. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability UR7: Extending the system with new metrics. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability, conï ¬ gurability UR8: Reliability of a Web-based system. Testability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability UR7: Extending the system with new metrics. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability, conï ¬ gurability UR8: Reliability of a Web-based system. Testability UR9: Multiple users. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Non-functional requirements UR6: Human-readable URLs. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability UR7: Extending the system with new metrics. Evolvability, reusability, maintainability, testability, integrability, conï ¬ gurability UR8: Reliability of a Web-based system. Testability UR9: Multiple users. Scalability Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 56 / 78 Requirements Analysis: Example Contextual requirements UR1: Web browser. UR2: Valid (X)HTML, at least (X)HTML Transitional. UR3: No browser plugins are allowed. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 57 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Analysis We analyze the requirements and try to identify so-called key concepts Understanding of the domain Static part of the domain We also try to identify key process and activities Dynamic part of the domain Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 58 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Design Design is the process of creating models (recollect the deï ¬ nition of SA) Two basic types of architectural models Structure and behavior Architectural structure is a static model of a system (i.e. how the system is divided into components) Architectural behavior is a dynamic model of a system (i.e. how the components interact with each other to perform some useful work) Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 59 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural structure The division of a system into components and connectors To represent the model: box-and-lines diagrams (to see at a glance important concepts) It is important to remember that diagrams are only representations of the model Diagrams must always be accompanied by additional material such as text, data models, mathematical models, etc. The combination of diagrams and additional material is an architectural model Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 60 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural structure What is a component? What is a connector? Components might be subsystems, separate processes, source code packages, Connectors might be network protocols, method invocations, associations, The combination of diagrams and additional material is an architectural model Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 61 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural structure Figure: Example of an architectural structure Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 62 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural structure In the diagram we have one user-interface and one database component But what is the criteria for deciding what is a component? Separate program modules? Separate threads or processes? Conceptual or functional division? And what about connectors? Network protocols? Callbacks? Request/response cycles? Method invocations? Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 63 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural structure What is the level of granularity of a diagram? E.g. for a Web-based system, components are servers and browsers and connector is HTTP But, components of a server are HTTP parser, ï ¬ le I/O, cache, plug-ins, Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 64 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural structure Comparison with OO: a component is an object and a connector is a message sent between two objects Because models in OO are very well deï ¬ ned Therefore, we need additional information that accompanies diagrams To describe criteria for decomposition and provide explanations on granularity Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 65 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior Complementing structure is architectural behavior Interaction of system elements to perform some useful work Functionality vs. behavior Functionality is what the system can do and behavior is the activity sequence Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 66 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior Example: Accessing a tweets document Request is sent to the Web presentation layer That layer forwards the request to the application logic, e.g. TweetDeck TweetDeck contacts TweetViews to obtain a particular template, then retrieves the data from TweetDB wraps it into an HTML response and sends the response to TweetUI Functionality allows me to display a tweets document, behavior is the sequence of activities that makes it happen Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 67 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior Each component has a set of responsibilities Behavior is the way how these responsibilities are exercised to respond to some event An event may be an action of the user or an event from an external system A particular behavior is an event plus a response in the form of a sequence of component responsibilities Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 68 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior To represent behavioral models we use use-case map notation by Buhr A use-case map consists of a trace drawn through a structural diagram of the system The path of the trace through a structural diagram shows the sequence of activities Each crossing of a component by the trace indicates exercising of a responsibility Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 69 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior Figure: Types of traces in use-case maps Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 70 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior (a) Single trace all responsibilities exercised sequentially (b) Two traces are consecutive: Equivalent to single trace but shows that continuation is triggered by another event (c) And-Fork: The traces after the line are potentially concurrent (run in parallel) Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 71 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior Figure: Types of traces in use-case maps Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 72 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior (a) N-Way And-Fork: the trace after the fork may be replicated an arbitrary number of times (b) Or-Fork: The trace is split and activity proceeds along one or another path (c) Seq-Fork: The traces after the line are followed in the order indicated by the arrow Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 73 / 78 Architectural Analysis Design Architectural behavior Figure: Example of architectural behavior Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 74 / 78 Architectural Views Architectural views We can examine a system from diï ¬â‚¬erent points of view Diï ¬â‚¬erent kinds of views Conceptual: components are set of responsibilities and connectors are ï ¬â€šow of information Execution: components are execution units (processes) and connectors are messages between processes Implementation: components are libraries, source code, ï ¬ les, etc and connectors are protocols, api calls, etc. Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 75 / 78 Architectural Views Architectural views There are other models as well We will mention them but we will investigate only previous three models Data model describes the data Physical model describes servers, ï ¬ rewalls, workstations, Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 76 / 78 Architectural Views Architectural views Each view provides diï ¬â‚¬erent information about the structure of the system Each view addresses a speciï ¬ c set of concerns All views taken together is the primary means of documenting software architecture Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 77 / 78 Architectural Views Architectural views The conceptual architecture considers the structure of the system in terms of its domain-level functionality The execution architecture considers the system in terms of its runtime structure The implementation architecture considers the system in terms of its build-time structure Denis Helic (KMI, TU Graz) SA Analysis and Design Oct 19, 2011 78 / 78

The brander-krugman model

The brander-krugman model Extended Essay 1 The Brander-Krugman model, also known as the reciprocal dumping model, explains the possibility of international trade in a homogenous good. In doing so, it raises an interesting issue: is this apparently pointless trade socially beneficial? Meanwhile, Corden developed a more realistic customs union (CU) theory compared to orthodox theory by relaxing the assumption of constant marginal costs (MC). While the framework of these two models are similar, their conclusions are very different, the reasons for which are discussed further below. a) Both models are set in a partial equilibrium framework; the prices of all substitutes and complements of the good in question are assumed to be constant, as are the income levels of consumers, allowing for an easier analysis of welfare gains from the formation of the customs union (CU). Within this framework, there is a single producer in each of the CU countries that produces a homogenous good. The other similarity between the two models is that the tariffs set and faced by both countries (Home (H) and Partner (P)) before CU formation are equal .Thus, when the union is created a Common External Tariff (CET) already exists. Corden develops his model in further stages to include made-to-measure tariffs so that the CET has to be set upon CU formation. It is assumed that this will be set lower than the original tariffs that were imposed. The countries forming a CU in Cordens model are small relative to the rest of the world (R), implying that its formation will have no effect on world prices. In the Brander-Krugman model, all three countries (R is represented as one country) are identical in size. Symmetry is assumed between the firms in the Brander-Krugman model therefore the firms in each of the countries face the same constant marginal cost and domestic demand functions, contrary to Corden. Corden relaxes the assumption of constant marginal costs (MC) that is held in orthodox customs union theory, and assumes instead that the firms benefit from internal economies of scale and thus face declining marginal and average cost (AC) curves. Figure 1 shows that the minimum point of the firms AC curves is above the price paid for imports (pm). Hence a tariff is necessary to protect domestic production, which is set at T- pm and prevents R from importing to H and P. The domestic price being equal to the firms AC, they operate at a normal profit. The price received for exports (px) is assumed to be lower than pm as H and P also face tariffs. Therefore, their AC is greater than px and so they cannot export their goods either. Thus, unlike in the Brander-Krugman model, there is no international trade prior to CU formation. The main characteristic of the Brander-Krugman model is that the firms display Cournot behaviour the firms make decisions about their own output levels to maximise their profits assuming that the output levels of the other producers will not change[1]. This is not necessarily the case in Cordens model. b) The existence of internal economies of scale in Corden means that efficiency and welfare gains could be increased if a single firm increases its output and captures both markets following CU formation. This, along with the assumption that the firms face different cost functions, leads to the conclusion that the firm with the higher AC will exit the market and import the good from the firm that can produce it at a lower cost (this essay will assume that the partner firm exits the market). The assumption that the partner firm operated at a normal profit pre-CU indicates that there will be no loss of producer surplus and no welfare loss in P as it exits the market. Conversely, the symmetry between the firms in Cournot means that neither firm in the CU has a cost advantage over the other. Thus, both the home and partner countries benefit from CU formation by increasing trade with each other, resulting in an increase in output for both firms (Appendix, equation (1)). Although H and P have increased their overall output, the quantity they supply in each of their domestic markets decreases (equation 2). Although there is an overall gain in welfare in both models as a result of CU formation, the source of these gains differ. Both the home and partner countries experience a welfare gain from CU formation in Cournot given the symmetry, whereas only the home country benefits in Corden as the partner firm exits the market. In Cournot, the price falls in the markets (equation 3) and thus the welfare gain is largely reflected by an increase in consumer surplus (equation 4) in both the home and partner markets. The countries also lose welfare through a fall in tariff revenue (equation 5) and the firms profits may rise or fall depending on the elasticity of the aggregate demand in the CU (equation 6). However, Hs overall welfare gain is shown to be always positive (equation 7). In Corden, the assumption that the home and partner countries are small compared to the rest of the world implies that the CU firms are not large enough to compete with the outside firm and therefore the CU formation will not affect world prices. This, along with the assumption that the remaining firm within the CU maximises his profit by charging right up to the import-preventing price, which is the world price plus the CET, means that the price will remain unchanged. Thus, the increased welfare is due to an increase in the remaining firms producer surplus (figure 1, a+ß) as the fall in average cost (to J, figure 1) is not passed onto consumers. However, if made-to-measure tariffs are assumed and the CET is lower than both the initial tariffs, a price reduction will be induced in both countries and some of the welfare gain will be passed onto consumers. The symmetry in Cournot and differentiation in Corden also lead to different conclusions with respect to the impact on the rest of the world. In Corden, the CU formation does not affect Rs welfare under the assumption that there was no international trade pre-CU and there is still none post-CU. In Cournot, the fall in Rs output (equation 8) and the price drop in H and P impact negatively on the R firms profits (equation 9). As consumption and imports in R remain unchanged, Rs welfare is reduced. The main assumptions that lead to the different conclusions are those of symmetrical costs in Cournot and differentiation in Corden. This affects how the welfare gains are divided amongst the countries as well as how they are split between the producers and consumers. c) In discussing the appropriateness of the models to the EU situation, the relevance of the assumptions and the predicted results, and how the causes of these results compare with reality need to be considered. There are many studies that analyse how EU integration has affected trade flows in terms of trade creation and trade diversion. Trade creation is defined as intra-EU imports replacing domestic production; trade diversion as EU imports replacing imports from the rest of the world. By 1992, bilateral trade between any two EC countries was 65% higher than if the EC had not existed, supporting both models predictions that trade between the home and partner countries increases.[2] Over the period from 1959/60 to 1977, which includes both stages of integration for the EC and EFTA countries, annual trade creation was estimated at $20-31 billion and trade diversion at $5-8 billion.[3] This affirms the Cournot prediction that the partner firm would increase its imports to the home country at the expense of both domestic production and imports from the rest of the world. A study by the Single Market Review on the impact of the Single Market Programme (SMP) on trade creation and trade diversion gives a detailed insight into the relevance of the Corden and Cournot models to the EU situation.[4] Its data and analysis focuses on industries within the manufacturing sector, particularly the 15 industries that were likely to be particularly sensitive to the SMP.[5] Although there are some industries close to perfect competition with a concentration ratio of 0.00 or 0.01 such as clothing and boiler making most industries within the EU are relatively oligopolistic according to their average concentration ratios. The assumption of perfect information is unlikely to hold true. In many economic theories where this is assumed, it is highly unrealistic, especially with regards to the reactions of a firms competitors to the union formation. While Cournot assumes that firms face a constant MC, a 50% reduction in output from the minimum efficient scale of output led to an increase in AC, and therefore MC, in all the industries analysed, thus indicating the presence of economies of scale. The assumption that all firms display Cournot behaviour does not always hold in the context of the EU. Through a comparison of the changes in the price-cost margins and in the home firms market share in the domestic industry, it is evident that industries reacted in two very different ways. One group, including office machines and pharmaceutical products, experienced large cuts in their price-cost margins and a relatively small change in their market share, while the opposite is the case for the other group. It appears that the first group decided to reduce its prices instead of losing market share, implying that some firms do not compete on output but on price. However, the effect of changes in competitive behaviour by firms on market shares was extremely small for most industries and countries, though it was usually more important in the smaller EU countries.[6] Thus, changes in firms behaviour are relatively insignificant in affecting market shares, compared to other factors. The assumption of symmetrical firms is, again, an unrealistic one. Given that the country sizes within the EU are very different, it is highly likely that firms across the EU faced different market sizes and domestic demand functions before integration, and as a result, they are unlikely to be the same size or have the same cost functions. In terms of the impact of the CU formation on the industries, most of the results predicted in Cournot hold true from 1900-94, the period examined in this SMR report. The price-cost margins in the 15 sensitive industries fell by an average of 3.9%, while they fell by 3.6% in the manufacturing sector as a whole. The extent of this drop in each industry depends on the behaviour of the firms. The impact of the SMP on the respective market shares in the manufacturing sector as a whole is negative for the home industries, and positive for both the EU and the rest of the worlds market shares in the home country. Cournots model correctly predicted that the home firm would sell more while the partner firm would sell less in the home market. However, it predicts that the rest of the worlds share of the home market would fall. The SMR carried out two ex-post simulations; one with no direct external trade effects and one with. All of Cournots predictions regarding changes in the market shares hold true for the former simulation. However, the latter simulation is more accurate in reflecting the actual changes in market shares that were experienced over this integration period. This implies that the Cournot model does not take into account the increasing liberalisation of external trade over this period that also led to a reduction in extra-EU trade costs, either as a result of the CU formation or due to increasing globalisation. In terms of welfare, the changes support Cournots prediction that welfare increased in both H and P. The change in welfare measured as a percentage of GDP was greater than the percentage change in GDP in each of the EU countries analysed. The main goal of creating the single market in the EU was to increase its competitiveness with respect to large economies such as the USA through economies of scale. This implies that Cordens model should offer a more accurate picture of the EU. However, certain assumptions do not reflect the EUs characteristics. The assumption that the CU-forming countries are small may hold true for some of the EU countries; however, the implication of this that the customs union will be unable to affect world prices may not hold. Given the size of the EU, it is large enough to compete with the large economies such as the USA and Japan. Cordens predictions regarding changes in price and market shares are not appropriate to the EU situation, due to the strong assumptions that there was no international trade prior to the formation and thus no trade with the rest of the world after. Also, with the partner firm exiting the market, it is assumed that there is no increase in competition following CU formation, thus no change in the prices. However, there is evidence supporting the main conclusion of this model that the welfare gain is a result of restructuring, which leads to increasingly concentrated industries as firms can benefit from economies of scale as the size of the market that they have access to increases. Between 1987 and 1993, the four-firm concentration ratio increased by 2.3% across 71 industries in the EU.[7] This was partly due to increased restructuring; between 1987 and 1990, the percentage of MAs involving countries from two different member states jumped from 9.6% to 21.5% in anticipation of the Single Market. This replaced MAs within country borders which fell from 71.6% to 60.7% over the same period.[8] While it is true that EU industry concentration has increased, this is cannot be attributed solely to an expansion in the market size. Many industries already operated internationally in the 1980s and hence, a market size expansion would not have had as big an impact on the concentration level. The single market also led to a reduction in non-tariff barriers (especially barriers to entry) between EU member states, through public procurement liberalisation, increased ease of cross-border knowledge transfer and the free movement of capital. Cordens comparative static model fails to take into account the dynamic effects of EU integration. The aim of the SMP was much more ambitious than a mere elimination of the tariff barriers and thus both theories, which focus on the effects of a CU, are too simplistic to be wholly appropriate. Certain aspects of both models are comparable to the EU situation. However, Cordens model seems to be more suitable; while Cournots results regarding changes in the prices and respective market share were more accurate, Cordens underlying characteristics are much more appropriate to the current EU situation. 1 Friedman, James (1983), Oligopoly Theory, Cambridge University Press Frankel (1997) (Ali El-Agraa P175) Kreinin (1979b) (Ali El-Agraa P175 European Commission/CEPR (1997) Trade Creation and Trade Diversion, Subseries IV/ volume 3 of The Single Market Review Buigues, Ilzkovitz and Lebrun (1990) EC/CEPR, 1997, Trade creation and trade diversion Subseries V, Volume 4, Economies of Scale AMDATA in European Economy (1999)